What Was the Purpose of the Bolognese Art Academy

Academic establishment for farther educational activity

A university (from Latin universitas 'a whole') is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs in different schools or faculties of learning.

The give-and-take university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly ways "customs of teachers and scholars".^[1]

The first universities were created in Europe past Cosmic Church monks.^[ii] ^[3] ^[4] ^[v] ^[6] The University of Bologna (Università di Bologna), founded in 1088, is the kickoff university in the sense of:

Being a high degree-application institute.
Having independence from the ecclesiastic schools, although conducted by both clergy and non-clergy.
Using the word universitas (which was coined at its foundation).
Issuing secular and non-secular degrees: grammar, rhetoric, logic, theology, canon law, notarial law.^[7] ^[8] ^[nine] ^[x] ^[xi]

History [edit]

Definition [edit]

The original Latin word universitas refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a order, company, community, guild, corporation, etc".^[12] At the fourth dimension of the emergence of urban boondocks life and medieval guilds, specialized "associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights ordinarily guaranteed by charters issued past princes, prelates, or the towns in which they were located" came to exist denominated past this general term. Like other guilds, they were cocky-regulating and adamant the qualifications of their members.^[xiii]

In modern usage the word has come to mean "An institution of higher didactics offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees,"^[14] with the earlier emphasis on its corporate organization considered as applying historically to Medieval universities.^[15]

The original Latin word referred to degree-awarding institutions of learning in Western and Central Europe, where this form of legal organisation was prevalent and from where the institution spread around the world.^{[ citation needed ]}

Academic freedom [edit]

An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of bookish freedom. The get-go documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the University of Bologna, which adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita,^[sixteen] in 1158 or 1155,^[17] which guaranteed the correct of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of "academic freedom".^[xviii] This is at present widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum,^[xix] marking the 900th anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, drawing from all parts of the world.

Antecedents [edit]

Moroccan higher-learning establishment Al-Qarawiyin (founded in 859 A.D.) was transformed into a university under the supervision of the ministry of educational activity in 1963.^[20]

Scholars occasionally call the University of al-Qarawiyyin (proper noun given in 1963), founded equally a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri in 859, a university,^[21] ^[22] ^[23] ^[24] although Jacques Verger writes that this is washed out of scholarly convenience.^[25] Several scholars consider that al-Qarawiyyin was founded^[26] ^[27] and run^[20] ^[28] ^[29] ^[30] ^[31] as a madrasa until after World War II. They appointment the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a university to its mod reorganization in 1963.^[32] ^[33] ^[20] In the wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was officially renamed "Academy of Al Quaraouiyine" two years after.^[32]

Some scholars argue that Al-Azhar Academy, founded in 970-972 AD and located in Cairo, Egypt, is the oldest degree-granting university in the world and the 2d oldest university in the world.^[34]

Some scholars, including George Makdisi, have argued that early medieval universities were influenced past the madrasas in Al-Andalus, the Emirate of Sicily, and the Middle East during the Crusades.^[35] ^[36] ^[37] Norman Daniel, however, views this argument equally overstated.^[38] Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara have recently fatigued on the well-documented influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe to call for a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning abroad from a concern with local institutional structures to a broader consideration within a global context.^[39]

Medieval Europe [edit]

The modern academy is generally regarded every bit a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition.^[40] ^[41]

European higher education took identify for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools (scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; prove of these immediate forerunners of the subsequently university at many places dates dorsum to the 6th century.^[42]

In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium–the preparatory arts of grammer, rhetoric and dialectic or logic–and the quadrivium: arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy.

The earliest universities were adult under the aegis of the Latin Church past papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It is possible, nonetheless, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris existence an exception.^[43] Later they were also founded past Kings (University of Naples Federico Ii, Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Kraków) or municipal administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt). In the early medieval menses, nearly new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have go primarily sites of higher instruction. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the involvement in learning promoted by The residence of a religious community.^[44] Pope Gregory 7 was critical in promoting and regulating the concept of mod university as his 1079 Papal Prescript ordered the regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities.^[45]

The outset universities in Europe with a form of corporate/social club structure were the Academy of Bologna (1088), the Academy of Paris (c.1150, afterwards associated with the Sorbonne), and the University of Oxford (1167).

The University of Bologna began as a law school teaching the ius gentium or Roman police force of peoples which was in need across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church. Bologna's special claim to Alma Mater Studiorum ^{[ description needed ]} is based on its autonomy, its application of degrees, and other structural arrangements, making it the oldest continuously operating establishment^[17] contained of kings, emperors or any kind of direct religious authorization.^[46] ^[47]

The conventional engagement of 1088, or 1087 co-ordinate to some,^[48] records when Irnerius commences teaching Emperor Justinian's sixth-century codified of Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilis, recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in the metropolis from many lands entering into a contract to gain this noesis, organising themselves into 'Nationes', divided between that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes. The students "had all the power … and dominated the masters".^[49] ^[50]

All over Europe rulers and metropolis governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for cognition, and the belief that club would benefit from the scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult issues and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of involvement in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts.^[51]

The recovery of Aristotle'due south works–more than than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of research into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the near of import certificate discoveries in Western intellectual history.^[52] Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle'due south works "a turning point in the history of Western thought."^[53] After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated the process and practise of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and particularly ideas related to agreement the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this "scholasticism" were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students.

The university civilisation developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Federal republic of germany, France and Corking Uk) and southern universities (primarily Italia) did take many elements in mutual. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics; while Hippocrates, Galen, and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated northward and due south, primarily in subject affair. Italian universities focused on police force and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. In that location were distinct differences in the quality of instruction in these areas which were congruent with their focus, so scholars would travel n or s based on their interests and means. There was too a difference in the types of degrees awarded at these universities. English, French and German language universities commonly awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The stardom can be attributed to the intent of the caste holder after graduation – in the northward the focus tended to be on acquiring didactics positions, while in the south students oft went on to professional positions.^[54] The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris. Southern universities tended to be patterned later on the student-controlled model begun at the University of Bologna.^[55] Amongst the southern universities, a further stardom has been noted betwixt those of northern Italy, which followed the design of Bologna every bit a "self-regulating, independent corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and imperial charter to serve the needs of authorities."^[56]

Early modern universities [edit]

The Academy of St Andrews, founded in 1410, is Scotland'southward oldest academy and 1 of the UK'south best ranked universities.^[57] ^[58]

During the Early Modern period (approximately tardily 15th century to 1800), the universities of Europe would see a tremendous corporeality of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the finish of the Middle Ages, about 400 years afterwards the first European academy was founded, there were twenty-nine universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, twenty-8 new ones were created, with some other eighteen added between 1500 and 1625.^[59] This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with the highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increment over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time.^[60] The identification of a university was non necessarily obvious during the Early on Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a college education establishment. In Mediterranean countries, the term studium generale was all the same frequently used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries.^[61]

The propagation of universities was non necessarily a steady progression, as the 17th century was rife with events that adversely afflicted university expansion. Many wars, and particularly the Thirty Years' War, disrupted the university mural throughout Europe at different times. War, plague, famine, regicide, and changes in religious power and construction oftentimes adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such equally student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and the continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts.^[62] This era was as well afflicted by the rise of the nation-state. Equally universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older pupil-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to motility toward this structural organisation. Command of universities however tended to be contained, although university leadership was increasingly appointed by the land.^[63]

Although the structural model provided by the Academy of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters", provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at to the lowest degree three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose instruction addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and system was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model simply having a centralized organization.^[64]

Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Eye Ages: natural philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, police, grammer and rhetoric. Aristotle was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine as well depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated.^[65] One time humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the report of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis. Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to interpret and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives.^[66] Other scholars inside the university were afflicted by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to aboriginal texts, likewise as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts.^[67] Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno, Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective equally well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist style before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation equally a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited the works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities.^[68] Galileo Galilei, who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua, and Martin Luther, who taught at the University of Wittenberg (equally did Melanchthon), also had humanist grooming. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate the university; to increment the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic platonic of scientific discipline and scholarship.^[69]

Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more artistic university climate (as the notable listing of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the homo, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not just the translation and propagation of ancient texts, only too their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the utilize of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further enquiry.^[70] The propagation of these texts, particularly within the universities, was greatly aided past the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of the use of the colloquial, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices.^[71]

Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a potent impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connexion between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the academy, the connection has been commonly perceived equally having been severed by the changing nature of scientific discipline during the Scientific Revolution. Historians such as Richard S. Westfall accept argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension betwixt universities and scientists.^[72] This resistance to changes in science may take been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.^[73]

Other historians detect incongruity in the proposition that the very identify where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their educational activity should also exist the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists betwixt 1450 and 1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were academy trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts.^[74] It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environs that fostered considerable growth and evolution. There was considerable reluctance on the function of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective every bit a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the earth. Yet, academy professors however utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at Academy of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction.^[75] Another case was the curt-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more than mechanistic approaches to scientific problems every bit well every bit demonstrated an openness to modify. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities.^[76] Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies every bit they emerged, when they did take new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environs for instruction and material resources.^[77]

Regardless of the manner the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible touch on the mode that university teaching was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework non simply for knowledge and noesis structure, but besides for the training of scholars within the college education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to get a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, at that place emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed information technology equally a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to sally.^[78]

The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as private scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also contest from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free pedagogy to the public, or established by local governments to provide a cognition-hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities.^[79] Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and say-so for the inquiry and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources bachelor through private benefactors.^[fourscore]

Past the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in means that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the most function been displaced and the humanities had get a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take concord in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the mod state.

Mod universities [edit]

By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by the 19th century, the German language and the French university models had arisen. The High german, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher'southward liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of liberty, seminars, and laboratories in universities.^{[ citation needed ]} The French university model involved strict bailiwick and control over every attribute of the academy.

Until the 19th century, faith played a meaning role in university curriculum; however, the office of religion in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German academy model had spread effectually the world. Universities full-bodied on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In the Usa, the Johns Hopkins University was the get-go to adopt the (German) enquiry academy model and pioneered the adoption of that model by most American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "nearly the unabridged faculty had studied in Germany."^[81] In Uk, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 past Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the germination of the University of Strathclyde.^[82] The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not but in Europe.

In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four primary "objectives essential to whatever properly balanced arrangement: pedagogy in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind and so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain inquiry in balance with pedagogy, since teaching should non exist separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."^[83]

In the early on 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models take in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power is transferred from faculty to managers, economic justifications dominate, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns".^[84] Academics' understanding of time, pedagogical pleasance, vocation, and collegiality have been cited as possible means of alleviating such problems.^[85]

National universities [edit]

A national university is mostly a university created or run by a national land but at the same time represents a state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural, religious or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland, which formed partly from the Catholic University of Ireland which was created virtually immediately and specifically in answer to the non-denominational universities which had been fix in Ireland in 1850. In the years leading upwardly to the Easter Rising, and in no small part a result of the Gaelic Romantic revivalists, the NUI nerveless a large amount of information on the Irish gaelic language and Irish culture.^{[ citation needed ]} Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for a more equal and laic^{[ further explanation needed ]} higher instruction system.

Intergovernmental universities [edit]

Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental. An example is the Academy of European Law, which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-business firm counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella system dedicated to sustainable evolution in signatory countries, and the United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United nations, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute, a postal service-graduate academy specialized in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organization, fix by the member states of the European Matrimony.

System [edit]

Although each institution is organized differently, near all universities take a board of trustees; a president, chancellor, or rector; at least ane vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of bookish departments, schools or faculties. Public university systems are ruled over by government-run college education boards^{[ citation needed ]}. They review financial requests and upkeep proposals and and so allocate funds for each university in the arrangement. They also corroborate new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they program for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the country or country. Nonetheless, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from country policies. However, they may have less independence from business organization corporations depending on the source of their finances.

Around the globe [edit]

The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded past the country, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local boondocks, while in other countries universities attract students from all over the world, and may provide university accommodation for their students.^[86]

Nomenclature [edit]

The definition of a academy varies widely, even within some countries. Where at that place is clarification, it is usually set by a government agency. For example:

In Australia, the Tertiary Didactics Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) is Australia's independent national regulator of the college pedagogy sector. Students rights within university are also protected by the Education Services for Overseas Students Act (ESOS).

In the United States in that location is no nationally standardized definition for the term university, although the term has traditionally been used to designate inquiry institutions and was once reserved for doctorate-granting enquiry institutions. Some states, such as Massachusetts, will only grant a school "university condition" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees.^[87]

In the Great britain, the Privy Council is responsible for blessing the utilise of the word university in the name of an establishment, under the terms of the Further and Higher Instruction Act 1992.^[88]

In Bharat, a new designation accounted universities has been created for institutions of college education that are not universities, but work at a very loftier standard in a specific expanse of study ("An Institution of College Didactics, other than universities, working at a very high standard in specific area of report, can be declared past the Central Government on the communication of the University Grants Commission as an Institution 'Deemed-to-be-university'"). Institutions that are 'deemed-to-be-university' enjoy the academic status and the privileges of a university.^[89] Through this provision many schools that are commercial in nature and have been established just to exploit the demand for higher education take sprung upward.^[90]

In Canada, college more often than not refers to a ii-twelvemonth, non-caste-granting institution, while university connotes a iv-year, degree-granting establishment. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings) into large inquiry universities with many PhD-granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but are non geared toward enquiry (such every bit Waterloo); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such every bit St. Francis Xavier).

In Deutschland, universities are institutions of higher instruction which accept the ability to confer available, principal and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised equally such by law and cannot be founded without government blessing. The term Universität (i.e. the High german term for university) is protected by law and any apply without official blessing is a criminal offence. Most of them are public institutions, though a few private universities be. Such universities are ever research universities. Apart from these universities, Germany has other institutions of higher education (Hochschule, Fachhochschule). Fachhochschule ways a college didactics institution which is like to the former polytechnics in the British education organization, the English term used for these German language institutions is unremarkably 'university of applied sciences'. They can confer main'due south degrees but no PhDs. They are similar to the model of teaching universities with less research and the research undertaken beingness highly practical. Hochschule tin can refer to various kinds of institutions, often specialised in a sure field (e.g. music, fine arts, concern). They might or might not have the power to honour PhD degrees, depending on the corresponding government legislation. If they laurels PhD degrees, their rank is considered equivalent to that of universities proper (Universität), if non, their rank is equivalent to universities of applied sciences.

Colloquial usage [edit]

Colloquially, the term academy may be used to describe a phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United states of america and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Ireland, Commonwealth of australia, New Zealand, Canada, the U.k., Nigeria, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain and the High german-speaking countries, academy is oftentimes contracted to uni. In Ghana, New Zealand, Bangladesh and in S Africa information technology is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has go uncommon in New Zealand in contempo years). "Varsity" was likewise common usage in the Great britain in the 19th century.^{[ citation needed ]}

Cost [edit]

In many countries, students are required to pay tuition fees. Many students wait to become 'student grants' to cover the cost of university. In 2016, the average outstanding educatee loan remainder per borrower in the United States was US$30,000.^[91] In many U.S. states, costs are predictable to ascent for students as a result of decreased state funding given to public universities.^[92] Many universities in the United States offer students the opportunity to utilize for financial scholarships to help pay for tuition based on academic achievement.

There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to written report without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Republic of finland so moved to put in identify tuition fees for strange students. Citizens of Eu and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and the amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the touch on.^[93] The situation in Germany is similar; public universities ordinarily do not charge tuition fees apart from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private universities, however, almost e'er charge tuition fees.

Come across also [edit]

Alternative university
Alumni
Ancient college-learning institutions
Catholic university
College and academy rankings
Corporate academy
International academy
Country-grant university
Liberal arts higher
List of bookish disciplines
Lists of universities and colleges
Pontifical university
Research university
School and academy in literature
Science tourism
UnCollege
University student retention
Academy system
Urban university

References [edit]

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^ Den Heijer, Alexandra (2011). Managing the Academy Campus: Information to Support Real Estate Decisions. Academische Uitgeverij Eburon. ISBN9789059724877. Many of the medieval universities in Western Europe were born under the aegis of the Catholic Church, unremarkably equally cathedral schools or by papal bull as Studia Generali.
^ A. Lamport, Marker (2015). Encyclopedia of Christian Education. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 484. ISBN9780810884939. All the great European universities-Oxford, to Paris, to Cologne, to Prague, to Bologna—were established with close ties to the Church.
^ B M. Leonard, Thomas (2013). Encyclopedia of the Developing Globe. Routledge. p. 1369. ISBN9781135205157. Europe established schools in association with their cathedrals to educate priests, and from these emerged eventually the first universities of Europe, which began forming in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.
^ Gavroglu, Kostas (2015). Sciences in the Universities of Europe, Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: Academic Landscapes. Springer. p. 302. ISBN9789401796361.
^ GA. Dawson, Patricia (2015). Beginning Peoples of the Americas and the European Age of Exploration. Cavendish Square Publishing. p. 103. ISBN9781502606853.
^ "The University from the 12th to the 20th century - Academy of Bologna". www.unibo.it. Archived from the original on five April 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
^ Top Universities Archived 17 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine Earth University Rankings Retrieved 6 January 2010
^ Paul L. Gaston (2010). The Claiming of Bologna. p. 18. ISBN978-ane-57922-366-3. Archived from the original on 10 March 2021. Retrieved 7 July 2016.
^ Hunt Janin: "The academy in medieval life, 1179–1499", McFarland, 2008, ISBN 0-7864-3462-7, p. 55f.
^ de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: A History of the Academy in Europe: Volume 1, Universities in the Middle Ages Archived xiii December 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-36105-two, pp. 47–55
^ Lewis, Charlton T.; Curt, Charles (1966) [1879], A Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press
^ Marcia L. Colish, Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400-1400, (New Haven: Yale Univ. Pr., 1997), p. 267.
^ "university, n.", OED Online (3rd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, archived from the original on 30 Apr 2021, retrieved 27 August 2013
^ "university, n.", OED Online (third ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, archived from the original on 30 Apr 2021, retrieved 27 Baronial 2013, ...In the Middle Ages: a torso of teachers and students engaged in giving and receiving didactics in the college branches of study … and regarded as a scholastic social club or corporation. Compare "University", Oxford English language Lexicon (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford Academy Printing, 1989, The whole torso of teachers and scholars engaged, at a particular place, in giving and receiving instruction in the college branches of learning; such persons associated together as a gild or corporate body, with definite organization and acknowledged powers and privileges (esp. that of conferring degrees), and forming an institution for the promotion of education in the higher or more of import branches of learning….
^ Malagola, C. (1888), Statuti delle Università e dei Collegi dello Studio Bolognese. Bologna: Zanichelli.
^ ^a ^b Rüegg, W. (2003). "Chapter 1: Themes". In De Ridder-Symoens, H. (ed.). A History of the University in Europe. Vol. ane. Cambridge Academy Printing. pp. 4–34. ISBN0-521-54113-1.
^ Watson, P. (2005), Ideas. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, page 373
^ "Magna Charta delle Università Europee". .unibo.it. Archived from the original on 15 November 2010. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
^ ^a ^b ^c Belhachmi, Zakia: "Gender, Education, and Feminist Knowledge in al-Maghrib (North Africa) – 1950–70", Journal of Center Eastern and Northward African Intellectual and Cultural Studies, Vol. ii–three, 2003, pp. 55–82 (65):

The Adjustments of Original Institutions of the Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in ii different types of Islamic instruction institutions in al-Maghrib. The start type was derived from the fusion of old madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university nether the supervision of the ministry of teaching in 1963.
^ Verger, Jacques: "Patterns", in: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de (ed.): A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Centre Ages, Cambridge Academy Press, 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-54113-8, pp. 35–76 (35)
^ Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. p. 328. ISBN978-0-1951-2559-7.
^ Joseph, S, and Najmabadi, A. Encyclopedia of Women & Islamic Cultures: Economics, teaching, mobility, and space. Brill, 2003, p. 314.
^ Swartley, Keith. Encountering the Globe of Islam. Authentic, 2005, p. 74.
^ A History of the University in Europe. Vol. I: Universities in the Center Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2003, 35
^ Petersen, Andrew: Lexicon of Islamic Architecture, Routledge, 1996, ISBN 978-0-415-06084-4, p. 87 (entry "Fez"):

The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the nearly famous mosque of Kingdom of morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers.
^ Lulat, Y. M.-M.: A History Of African College Education From Antiquity To The Present: A Critical Synthesis Studies in College Education, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-3, p. 70:

Equally for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of the texts used at the institution came from Muslim Spain...Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a pocket-size mosque constructed in 859 C.E. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri.
^ Shillington, Kevin: Encyclopedia of African History, Vol. 2, Fitzroy Dearborn, 2005, ISBN 978-i-57958-245-6, p. 1025:

Higher education has always been an integral role of Morocco, going dorsum to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa, known today as Al Qayrawaniyan University, became office of the state academy system in 1947.

They consider institutions like al-Qarawiyyin to be higher education colleges of Islamic law where other subjects were simply of secondary importance.
^ Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R.: "Madrasa", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd edition, Brill, 2010:

Madrasa, in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.e. a higher for higher studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type (kuttab); in medieval usage, essentially a college of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only.
^ Meri, Josef W. (ed.): Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Vol. 1, A–K, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7, p. 457 (entry "madrasa"):

A madrasa is a higher of Islamic constabulary. The madrasa was an educational institution in which Islamic law (fiqh) was taught co-ordinate to one or more Sunni rites: Maliki, Shafi'i, Hanafi, or Hanbali. It was supported by an endowment or charitable trust (waqf) that provided for at to the lowest degree one chair for i professor of law, income for other faculty or staff, scholarships for students, and funds for the maintenance of the edifice. Madrasas contained lodgings for the professor and some of his students. Subjects other than law were frequently taught in madrasas, and even Sufi seances were held in them, but there could exist no madrasa without law every bit technically the major field of study.
^ Makdisi, George: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", Studia Islamica, No. 32 (1970), pp. 255–264 (255f.):

In studying an institution which is strange and remote in point of time, as is the example of the medieval madrasa, one runs the double risk of attributing to it characteristics borrowed from one'south own institutions and 1'south own times. Thus costless transfers may be made from one civilisation to the other, and the time gene may be ignored or dismissed as being without significance. I cannot therefore be too careful in attempting a comparative study of these ii institutions: the madrasa and the academy. But in spite of the pitfalls inherent in such a written report, albeit sketchy, the results which may be obtained are well worth the risks involved. In any example, 1 cannot avoid making comparisons when sure unwarranted statements have already been made and seem to be currently accepted without question. The near unwarranted of these statements is the one which makes of the "madrasa" a "university".
^ ^a ^b Lulat, Y. G.-M.: A History Of African Higher Didactics From Artifact To The Nowadays: A Disquisitional Synthesis, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005, ISBN 978-0-313-32061-3, pp. 154–157
^ Park, Thomas K.; Boum, Aomar: Historical Lexicon of Kingdom of morocco, 2nd ed., Scarecrow Printing, 2006, ISBN 978-0-8108-5341-six, p. 348

al-qarawiyin is the oldest academy in Morocco. It was founded as a mosque in Fès in the middle of the ninth century. It has been a destination for students and scholars of Islamic sciences and Arabic studies throughout the history of Morocco. There were also other religious schools like the madras of ibn yusuf and other schools in the sus. This arrangement of basic teaching called al-ta'lim al-aSil was funded past the sultans of Morocco and many famous traditional families. Later on independence, al-qarawiyin maintained its reputation, but it seemed important to transform it into a academy that would prepare graduates for a modernistic land while maintaining an accent on Islamic studies. Hence, al-qarawiyin university was founded in Feb 1963 and, while the dean's residence was kept in Fès, the new university initially had four colleges located in major regions of the country known for their religious influences and madrasas. These colleges were kuliyat al-shari's in Fès, kuliyat uSul al-din in Tétouan, kuliyat al-lugha al-'arabiya in Marrakech (all founded in 1963), and kuliyat al-shari'a in Ait Melloul near Agadir, which was founded in 1979.
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External links [edit]

Wikiversity has learning resources about University

"Universities". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University